Psychologists say humans have four sets of needs: To be safe and secure, be loved and feel connected to others, to express their power and individuality, and have access to sensually appealing environments. By focusing on these sets of needs in planning, design and development, we can help build places that are more equitable, efficient and sustainable.
This essay explains and connects the concepts of human needs and placemaking, then offers guidance for practitioners. It is meant to provide a framework for planning practice and a launch pad for more conversation.
The human needs framework can help us avoid spectacular failures (such as the promise of urban renewal to enhance low-income communities ), get good ideas integrated into places more effectively, and help us better adapt to changing interests and demands in the communities we serve.
Human needs theories
No amount of urban planning and placemaking can meet all the needs of every individual at the same time. People are far too diverse and complex, and we are limited in what we can know. But we can strive to increase the number of opportunities for people to meet their needs and enhance the access to those opportunities.
We begin with psychological theories because ultimately it is individuals who decide whether to support, use and sustain placemaking efforts.
There are many theories of human motivation. Alfred Adler wrote that everyone has a ‘will to power’ – a desire to express their individuality (for example, through various types of art, career success, or leadership). Carl Rogers shared a similar view, and theorized that individuals are satisfied to the extent that what they experience is consistent with their desires for their protection and growth. Perhaps the most famous theory is the hierarchy of needs, by Abraham Maslow. He initially created a five-tiered structure of needs, ranging from physiological needs (food, safety, etc.) to self-actualization (the desire to ‘be all you can be.’) Later he added two more needs – the need to know and understand (which appear to be strategies toward self-actualization than separate needs). Maslow’s concept of a hierarchy is controversial, and criticized as being too focused on a male Western-oriented viewpoint. (Gender researchers and those who study collectivist cultures argue that for many people, the need to maintain strong relationships with others is at least as important – if not more so – than standing out. However, the three dimensions of human needs have been widely shared among psychologists. In recent years, as a result of the growth of the environmental movement, some psychologists have added a fourth dimension of the need for appealing environments. Ecopsychologists have argued that humans feel happier and more satisfied when they feel connected to their natural environment.
The evidence for these theories can be found in societies around the world. The basic physiological needs are indisputable. The lack of food and shelter can lead to hunger, illnesses and death. Connecting products such as alcohol, cars, and clothing makes advertisers reach.
Self-actualization needs epitomized
Though it is difficult to measure self-actualization in individuals, there are many symptoms of its absence in society. Korean immigrants and their descendants in the United States are considered model minorities, with higher than average educational outcomes and business creation. [i] Korean immigrants also do quite well in China. But the experience of Koreans in Japan is far different. Denied full citizenship rights and opportunities as their Japanese neighbors, Koreans there had social and educational outcomes similar to African-Americans and Latinos in the United States. What makes the Japanase Korean experience more interesting for this discussion is that unlike African-Americans in the United States, most Koreans physically resemble their Japanese neighbors -- and like some Jewish-Americans in the early 20th century, some Koreans have changed their names to ones that fit more in their mainstream society. Pyong Gap Min, who studied the experiences of Koreans in Japan and China, argues that Koreans did better in the latter country because they could exercise their cultural beliefs and practices without the pressure of giving those up through assimilation, as in Japan. In other words, the ability of Koreans to self-actualize as a group empowers and enables them to succeed.[ii]
The connection between the arts and participation in civil society also shows the importance of self-actualization. Numerous studies show that where there is more activity in arts, there is more volunteering and participation in other community activities.[iii]
Relational needs epitomized
Robert Putnam’s oft-cited book Bowling Alone stokes fears that Americans are becoming more isolated and less communal.[iv] Intuitively, it seems that the growing number of options for at-home entertainment (television, computers, recorded movies), and the growth of suburban and exurban communities would lead to a society of isolated families. But as William Whyte showed in City: Rediscovering the Center, people prefer to be around other people. In his observations, Whyte and his researchers found that when given a choice of sitting locations, most people will seat within a few feet of others. People also preferred to sit in moveable chairs rather than stationary benches, which is symbolic of a self-actualization need.[v] Though Whyte’s research was primarily in New York City in the 1980’s, the growth of cafes in the suburbs, and the revitalization of hundreds of aging downtowns in the face of increased competition from malls and big box stores strengthens Whyte’s theories of an urban design that promotes close human interaction.
There are many other examples of the power of relational needs in society. Youth gangs and organizations that provide volunteer opportunities both offer their members ways to connect with others in affirming and esteem-building ways. Not surprisingly, both gang membership and volunteerism has been on the rise in the first decade of the 21st century.[vi]
Environmental needs epitomized
From an economic perspective, one of the best indicators of demand for a quality of life element is in property values. There is ample research showing that enhancing the environmental quality of a place increases property values. Looking at the literature in real estate journals, Laverne and Winson-Geiderman reported that having trees on a residential property can increase its sale price by 4% to 19%. Their own analysis of office buildings in the Cleveland, Ohio, area found that “landscaping with a good aesthetic value” added 7% to the property’s rental rates.[vii] In a wide-ranging study of the literature on environmental amenities, Jackson found evidence that landscaping, signage, and other amenities that make built environments greener, more interesting and easier to navigate have significant benefits for public health.[viii] Grill argues that adult education in natural environments, such as those provided by the residential retreat center The Omega Institute, can help adults learn more effectively.[ix] In effect, furthering one human need can help to further another.
Connection to placemaking
Placemaking is a process by which a space becomes a “place” – a physical area that is seen by its users and others as distinct from other areas. This comes largely from the place’s history, combination of uses, and the feelings it evokes among the people who know of the place. All major cities around the world have similar objects and uses. Yet Paris, France is widely seen as a different type of place than the city of Los Angeles, California in the United States. In the United States, a place’s image plays an enormous role in revitalization efforts. Compared to their suburban neighbors, communities in New Jersey such as Paterson, Trenton, Newark and New Brunswick have far more of the kind of physical resources that in theory. Placemaking is often an organic and unintentional process that happens without the active knowledge of the people who give a place its identity, and help retain it.
For most of recorded history, intentional placemaking was a craft practiced by kings, chief clerics and wealthy landowners through (and sometimes led by) their architects and engineers. As monarchs and clerics gave way to committees and associations in the 20th century, these professionals continued to lead placemaking efforts. Their focus has and continues to be on the physical elements of place: buildings, infrastructure, and the spaces in between.[x] Early urban planning theory followed in the footsteps of architecture and civil engineering.
But by the mid-20th century, some elegant physical design theories failed in practice – the Radiant City produced more crime-filled housing projects than towers in the park; Broadacre City generated more wasteful urban sprawl than Jeffersonian green spaces. In the early 1960s, a working-class self-described housewife and activist with no architectural training suggested paying more attention to people than broad theories. Jane Jacobs and her followers challenged architects, planners and engineers to put people in their places.
In the last quarter of the 20th century, more people who weren’t focused on physical design – social workers, community organizers, lawyers and business development professionals – added more dimensions to placemaking practice.
Placemaking now is a craft focused on the relationships among people and their built environment. It fills in the gaps between the scopes of architects, civil engineers, social workers, and other professionals who each have a role in shaping places. This view of placemaking helps to justify collaborative planning practices: Even if the design proposals generated from all those public workshops is not much different from what a small committee generated in a half-day meeting, the proposals are much better because the workshops helped people feel that they designed their place themselves. In other words, the workshops furthered the self-actualization needs of residents, and therefore would be more likely to be supported within the community.
Meeting human needs through placemaking
The following table provides a matrix of sample elements that help meet the four dimensions of human needs. There are two categories of elements: Land use, which comprises objects in physical space, such as roads or parks; and associational/psychosocial, which comprises human activities and social beliefs that support human needs.
Dimensions | Typical land use elements | Typical associational/psychosocial elements |
Physiological needs | Roads, Stores, food production and distribution facilities, waste management facilities, energy generating facilities, auto-oriented uses, transportation-related facilities, hospitals | Emergency services Job opportunities Equitable distribution of public services and publicly available resources Equitable access from residence to elements that meet all four human needs dimensions |
Relational needs | Plazas/public squares, bars, residential enclaves, business districts, places of worship, community centers, theaters, historic and cultural sites | Social clubs Civic organizations Arts associations Festivals Community rituals |
Self-actualization needs | Schools, museums, galleries, passive recreation, business incubators | Competitions Openness to diversity Fair opportunities to engage in governance Openness to diversity and change |
Environmental needs | Parks, open space, streetscaping, | Conservancies Neighborhood associations |
Additional references
Engler, Barbara. 2009. Personality Theories. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.
Smith, Daniel B. 2010. Is There an Ecological Unconscious? The New York Times Magazine. January 31, 2010. 35-40
[i] F. James, J. Romine and P. Terry. Big City Labor Markets and Immigrant Economic Performance. Policy Studies Journal, Vol. 30, No. 1, (2002), pp. 107-131.
[ii] P.G. Min. A Comparison of the Korean Minorities. International Migration Review,
Vol. 26, No. 1 (Spring, 1992), pp. 4-21
[iii] National Assembly of State Arts Agencies. Arts Participation and Civic Engagement Linked in New Research. NASAA Notes, December 2006. http://www.enewsbuilder.net/nasaanotes/e_article000701234.cfm?x=bf5pFGV,b57JMnRS,w Also M. Stephenson. Developing Community Leadership Through the Arts in Southside Virginia: Social Networks, Civic Identity and Civic Change. Community Development Journal. Vol. 42, No. 1, (July 2005), p. 79-96.
[iv] __________, Bowling Alone, http://www.bowlingalone.com/#. Undated. Reviewed on March 28, 2010.
[v] W. Whyte. City: Rediscovering the Center. 2009. University of Pennsylvania Press. Originally published in 1988.
[vi] For information on why youth join gangs, see J. Howell. Youth Gangs: An Overview. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, August 1998. http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.gov/jjbulletin/9808/intro.html For information on the growth of gangs in the United States, see M. Carlie. Into the Abyss: A Personal Journey into the World of Street Gangs. http://faculty.missouristate.edu/m/MichaelCarlie/what_I_learned_about/GANGS/demographics_number.htm. Undated, but with information from as late as 2006. For information on the growth of volunteerism, see R. Grimm et. al. Volunteer Growth in America: A Review of Trends Since 1974. December 2006 http://www.serveminnesota.org/PDFFiles/VolunteerGrowthReport.pdf
[vii] R. LaVerne and K. Winson-Geiderman. The Influence of Trees and Landscaping on Rental Rates in Office Buildings. Journal of Arboriculture Volume 29 Number 5. (2003) 281-290
[viii] L. Jackson. The Relationship of Urban Design to Human Health and Condition. Landscape and Urban Planning 64 (2003) 191–200.
[ix] J. Grill. Natural Settings, Restorative Environments, and Adult Learning. Adult Learning Volume 14, Number 3 (Summer 2003) 20-23
[x] It’s not surprising that English translations of European documents equate ‘plan’ and ‘map’.
